Lutein

• How It Works

  Current evidence is not sufficient to know if lutein is useful in preventing macular degeneration or cataracts. A diet containing lutein-rich vegetables and fruits may lower the risk of some cancers.

  Lutein is a natural pigment synthesized by plants and microorganisms. Because it is an antioxidant, cancer prevention activity has been proposed, but no studies have proved this. Scientists also think that lutein may stimulate the immune system, stop DNA from mutating, or stop the growth of pre-cancerous cells. Lutein has been associated with a decreased risk of macular degeneration and cataracts, but there is not enough evidence to draw definite conclusions. There is some early evidence that increased lutein levels in the blood may protect against heart disease, but more studies are needed.

• Purported Uses
  • To prevent cancer
    One population-based study showed that higher intake of foods rich in lutein is associated with a lower risk of developing colon cancer, but another review of clinical trials suggests this effect is small. Dietary lutein does not reduce the risk of lung or prostate cancer, and its effects on cervical cancer are mixed. There is no proof that lutein can treat cancer.
  • To treat cataracts
    Population-based studies in humans found that eating lutein-rich foods was associated with reduced risk of developing cataracts. There is no evidence that lutein can treat cataracts or that lutein supplements could have the same effect as dietary lutein.
  • To prevent and treat macular degeneration
    A few clinical trials support this use, but others have found no effect of dietary lutein on macular degeneration. Also, there is not enough evidence that lutein can treat macular degeneration.
  • To increase visual acuity
    Clinical trials support this use in patients with degenerative diseases of the retina.
  • To prevent heart disease
    One small study indicates that taking lutein supplements may protect against heart disease, but additional studies are needed.
• Clinical Summary

  Lutein is a natural carotenoid pigment synthesized by plants and microorganisms. Carotenoids are classified as either provitamin A (alpha-carotene, beta-carotene, and beta-cryptoxanthin, which can be converted into retinol) or nonprovitamin A (lutein, lycopene, and zeaxanthin). Lutein has antioxidant ^(1) (2) and anti-inflammatory ⁽³⁾ activities, and supplements are marketed as protection against ocular diseases such as age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and for general eye health.

  Dietary lutein may protect against DNA damage but this may be due to concomitant intake of other micronutrients ⁽⁴⁾. However, preliminary evidence suggests that supplemental lutein may reduce biomarkers for coronary vascular disease (CVD) in healthy nonsmokers ⁽⁵⁾, and increase serum lutein in patients with early atherosclerosis, thereby regulating serum lipids and reducing inflammatory cytokines ⁽⁶⁾.

  Epidemiologic studies also suggest an association between increased lutein consumption and decreased incidence of atherosclerosis ⁽⁷⁾ and cataracts ^(8) (9), although the effects of dietary lutein on macular degeneration are inconsistent ^{(10) (11) (12)}. Other long-term studies found no effects with lutein/zeaxanthin supplementation on cognitive function ⁽³¹⁾, or risk for cataract surgery or vision loss ^(32) (33).

  Preliminary studies suggest lutein supplementation may increase plasma lutein concentrations and physical activity in sedentary older adults ⁽³⁴⁾. It may also improve visual field in patients with retinitis pigmentosa ⁽¹⁵⁾. Other studies show increased macular pigment optical density (MPOD) with lutein-containing supplements in patients with Alzheimer’s disease ⁽³⁵⁾, but not in healthy volunteers ⁽³⁶⁾ or offspring of parents with neovascular AMD ⁽³⁷⁾. Although lutein/zeaxanthin improved retinal function in patients with early AMD ⁽³⁸⁾, the current evidence is insufficient to support its use  ^{(12) (13) (14)}.

  Increased lutein consumption may decrease the risk of renal cell carcinoma ⁽¹⁶⁾, nonaggressive urothelial cell carcinoma ⁽¹⁷⁾, and breast cancer ⁽¹⁸⁾. Data on the effects of dietary lutein intake and risk of cervical or colon cancer are conflicting ^{(19) (20) (21) (22)}, whereas no association was found between lutein and lung cancer risk ⁽²³⁾ or prostate cancer risk ⁽³⁹⁾.

• Food Sources

  Kale, spinach, winter squash, cruciferous vegetables, cabbage, green beans, yellow/orange fruits, mangoes, papayas, peaches, oranges ⁽¹⁾. Lutein is absorbed best with meals that are higher in fat.

• Purported Uses
  • Cancer prevention
  • Cataracts
  • Macular degeneration
  • Visual acuity
• Mechanism of Action

  Lutein is one of the predominant carotenoids that accumulates in both the lens and retinal macula ⁽²⁴⁾. It scavenges reactive oxygen species, preventing damage to DNA and protein molecules ^(19) (25). As an oxycarotenoid, its structure is less hydrophobic than beta-carotene and lycopene. This enables lutein to react with free radicals in a membrane’s aqueous phase, resulting in increased membrane integrity, which may in turn affect tissue permeability to oxygen and other molecules ⁽¹⁹⁾. It may also protect against ocular damage by reducing the amount of blue light that reaches photoreceptors ⁽²⁵⁾.

  As a nonprovitamin A carotenoid, lutein does not have any vitamin A activity, but does have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immune-enhancing properties. In an obese rat model, lutein independently reduced superoxide dismutase activity, and also raised glutathione peroxidase activity in lean rats when combined with ascorbic acid ⁽²⁶⁾. In vitro and atherosclerotic mouse models demonstrate the ability of lutein to inhibit monocyte inflammatory responses to low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in the artery wall and reduce monocyte migration ⁽⁷⁾. In humans, lutein supplementation decreases lipid peroxidation and inflammatory response ⁽⁵⁾.

  Carotenoids including lutein inhibit mutagenesis and transformation, and premalignant lesions ⁽¹⁾. In murine mammary cancer models, dietary lutein selectively modulated apoptosis and inhibited angiogenesis by increasing p53 and Bax proapoptotic gene expression, while decreasing Bcl-2 antiapoptotic gene expression with a subsequent increase in Bax:Bcl-2 ratio in tumors ⁽²⁷⁾. Lutein-mediated AP-1 suppression and anti-inflammatory effects are due to its antioxidative and p38/c-Jun-N-terminal kinase inhibitory activities ⁽³⁾. In a hepatocellular carcinoma animal model, lutein reduced γ-glutamyl transpeptidase activity, a marker of cellular proliferation ⁽²⁾.

• References

  1. Khachik F, Beecher GR, Smith JC, Jr. Lutein, lycopene, and their oxidative metabolites in chemoprevention of cancer. J Cell Biochem Suppl. 1995;22:236-246.

  2. Sindhu ER, Firdous AP, Ramnath V, et al. Effect of carotenoid lutein on N-nitrosodiethylamine-induced hepatocellular carcinoma and its mechanism of action. Eur J Cancer Prev. Jul 2013;22(4):320-327.

  3. Oh J, Kim JH, Park JG, et al. Radical scavenging activity-based and AP-1-targeted anti-inflammatory effects of lutein in macrophage-like and skin keratinocytic cells. Mediators Inflamm. 2013;2013:787042.

  4. Yong LC, Petersen MR, Sigurdson AJ, et al. High dietary antioxidant intakes are associated with decreased chromosome translocation frequency in airline pilots. Am J Clin Nutr. Nov 2009;90(5):1402-1410.

  5. Wang MX, Jiao JH, Li ZY, et al. Lutein supplementation reduces plasma lipid peroxidation and C-reactive protein in healthy nonsmokers. Atherosclerosis. Apr 2013;227(2):380-385.

  6. Xu XR, Zou ZY, Xiao X, et al. Effects of lutein supplement on serum inflammatory cytokines, ApoE and lipid profiles in early atherosclerosis population. J Atheroscler Thromb. Feb 22 2013;20(2):170-177.

  7. Dwyer JH, Navab M, Dwyer KM, et al. Oxygenated carotenoid lutein and progression of early atherosclerosis: the Los Angeles atherosclerosis study. Circulation. Jun 19 2001;103(24):2922-2927.

  8. Christen WG, Liu S, Glynn RJ, et al. Dietary carotenoids, vitamins C and E, and risk of cataract in women: a prospective study. Arch Ophthalmol. Jan 2008;126(1):102-109.

  9. Moeller SM, Voland R, Tinker L, et al. Associations between age-related nuclear cataract and lutein and zeaxanthin in the diet and serum in the Carotenoids in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study, an Ancillary Study of the Women’s Health Initiative. Arch Ophthalmol. Mar 2008;126(3):354-364.

  10. Dagnelie G, Zorge IS, McDonald TM. Lutein improves visual function in some patients with retinal degeneration: a pilot study via the Internet. Optometry. Mar 2000;71(3):147-164.

  11. Tan JS, Wang JJ, Flood V, et al. Dietary antioxidants and the long-term incidence of age-related macular degeneration: the Blue Mountains Eye Study. Ophthalmology. Feb 2008;115(2):334-341.

  12. Cho E, Hankinson SE, Rosner B, et al. Prospective study of lutein/zeaxanthin intake and risk of age-related macular degeneration. Am J Clin Nutr. Jun 2008;87(6):1837-1843.

  13. Chong EW, Wong TY, Kreis AJ, et al. Dietary antioxidants and primary prevention of age related macular degeneration: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. Oct 13 2007;335(7623):755.

  14. Trumbo PR, Ellwood KC. Lutein and zeaxanthin intakes and risk of age-related macular degeneration and cataracts: an evaluation using the Food and Drug Administration’s evidence-based review system for health claims. Am J Clin Nutr. Nov 2006;84(5):971-974.

  15. Bahrami H, Melia M, Dagnelie G. Lutein supplementation in retinitis pigmentosa: PC-based vision assessment in a randomized double-masked placebo-controlled clinical trial [NCT00029289]. BMC Ophthalmol. 2006;6:23.

  16. Hu J, La Vecchia C, Negri E, et al. Dietary vitamin C, E, and carotenoid intake and risk of renal cell carcinoma. Cancer Causes Control. Oct 2009;20(8):1451-1458.

  17. Ros MM, Bueno-de-Mesquita HB, Kampman E, et al. Plasma carotenoids and vitamin C concentrations and risk of urothelial cell carcinoma in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. Oct 2012;96(4):902-910.

  18. Eliassen AH, Hendrickson SJ, Brinton LA, et al. Circulating carotenoids and risk of breast cancer: pooled analysis of eight prospective studies. J Natl Cancer Inst. Dec 19 2012;104(24):1905-1916.

  19. Slattery ML, Benson J, Curtin K, et al. Carotenoids and colon cancer. Am J Clin Nutr. Feb 2000;71(2):575-582.

  20. Mannisto S, Yaun SS, Hunter DJ, et al. Dietary carotenoids and risk of colorectal cancer in a pooled analysis of 11 cohort studies. Am J Epidemiol. Feb 1 2007;165(3):246-255.

  21. VanEenwyk J, Davis FG, Bowen PE. Dietary and serum carotenoids and cervical intraepithelial neoplasia. Int J Cancer. Apr 22 1991;48(1):34-38.

  22. Ghosh C, Baker JA, Moysich KB, et al. Dietary intakes of selected nutrients and food groups and risk of cervical cancer. Nutr Cancer. 2008;60(3):331-341.

  23. Gallicchio L, Boyd K, Matanoski G, et al. Carotenoids and the risk of developing lung cancer: a systematic review. Am J Clin Nutr. Aug 2008;88(2):372-383.

  24. Chitchumroonchokchai C, Schwartz SJ, Failla ML. Assessment of lutein bioavailability from meals and a supplement using simulated digestion and caco-2 human intestinal cells. J Nutr. Sep 2004;134(9):2280-2286.

  25. Koushan K, Rusovici R, Li W, et al. The role of lutein in eye-related disease. Nutrients. May 2013;5(5):1823-1839.

  26. Blakely S, Herbert A, Collins M, et al. Lutein interacts with ascorbic acid more frequently than with alpha-tocopherol to alter biomarkers of oxidative stress in female zucker obese rats. J Nutr. Sep 2003;133(9):2838-2844.

  27. Chew BP, Brown CM, Park JS, et al. Dietary lutein inhibits mouse mammary tumor growth by regulating angiogenesis and apoptosis. Anticancer Res. Jul-Aug 2003;23(4):3333-3339.

  28. van het Hof KH, Brouwer IA, West CE, et al. Bioavailability of lutein from vegetables is 5 times higher than that of beta-carotene. Am J Clin Nutr. Aug 1999;70(2):261-268.

  29. Olmedilla B, Granado F, Southon S, et al. A European multicentre, placebo-controlled supplementation study with alpha-tocopherol, carotene-rich palm oil, lutein or lycopene: analysis of serum responses. Clin Sci (Lond). Apr 2002;102(4):447-456.

  30. National Academy Press. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamin E, Selenium, and Carotenoids. 2000; http://books.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=9810. Accessed December 17, 2013.

  31. Chew EY, Clemons TE, Agron E, et al. Effect of Omega-3 Fatty Acids, Lutein/Zeaxanthin, or Other Nutrient Supplementation on Cognitive Function: The AREDS2 Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA. Aug 25 2015;314(8):791-801.

  32. Chew EY, SanGiovanni JP, Ferris FL, et al. Lutein/zeaxanthin for the treatment of age-related cataract: AREDS2 randomized trial report no. 4. JAMA Ophthalmol. Jul 2013;131(7):843-850.

  33. Glaser TS, Doss LE, Shih G, et al. The Association of Dietary Lutein plus Zeaxanthin and B Vitamins with Cataracts in the Age-Related Eye Disease Study: AREDS Report No. 37. Ophthalmology. Jul 2015;122(7):1471-1479.

  34. Thomson RL, Coates AM, Howe PR, et al. Increases in plasma lutein through supplementation are correlated with increases in physical activity and reductions in sedentary time in older adults. Nutrients. Mar 3 2014;6(3):974-984.

  35. Nolan JM, Loskutova E, Howard A, et al. The impact of supplemental macular carotenoids in Alzheimer’s disease: a randomized clinical trial. J Alzheimers Dis. 2015;44(4):1157-1169.

  36. Obana A, Tanito M, Gohto Y, et al. Changes in Macular Pigment Optical Density and Serum Lutein Concentration in Japanese Subjects Taking Two Different Lutein Supplements. PLoS One. 2015;10(10):e0139257.

  37. Korobelnik JF, Rougier MB, Delyfer MN, et al. Effect of Dietary Supplementation With Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and omega-3 on Macular Pigment: A Randomized Clinical Trial. JAMA Ophthalmol. Nov 1 2017;135(11):1259-1266.

  38. Huang YM, Dou HL, Huang FF, et al. Changes following supplementation with lutein and zeaxanthin in retinal function in eyes with early age-related macular degeneration: a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Br J Ophthalmol. Mar 2015;99(3):371-375.

  39. Graff RE, Judson G, Ahearn TU, et al. Circulating Antioxidant Levels and Risk of Prostate Cancer by TMPRSS2:ERG. Prostate. May 2017;77(6):647-653.